This article covers the search for a viable vaccine against HIV Human immunodeficiency virus is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or, the virus that causes AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. HIV is transmitted through direct. As there is no known cure for AIDS, the search for a vaccine has become part of medical approaches against the disease.

It has been known for many years that HIV is an extremely difficult virus to render harmless, and no cure presently exists. Research into a vaccine is one of several strategies to reduce the worldwide harm from AIDS, with other approaches based upon antiviral Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used specifically for treating viral infections. Like antibiotics for bacteria, specific antivirals are used for specific viruses. Unlike most antibiotics, antiviral drugs do not destroy their target pathogen; instead they inhibit their development treatments such as highly active antiretroviral therapy Antiretroviral drugs are medications for the treatment of infection by retroviruses, primarily HIV. When several such drugs, typically three or four, are taken in combination, the approach is known as highly active antiretroviral therapy, or HAART. The American National Institutes of Health and other organizations recommend offering antiretroviral (HAART), and social approaches such as safe sex.

There is evidence that a vaccine may be possible. Work with monoclonal antibodies Monoclonal antibodies are monospecific antibodies that are the same because they are made by one type of immune cell that are all clones of a unique parent cell. Given almost any substance, it is possible to create monoclonal antibodies that specifically bind to that substance; they can then serve to detect or purify that substance. This has (MAb) has proven that the human body can defend itself against HIV, and certain individuals remain asymptomatic for decades after HIV infection. More recently in 2009, a number of potential candidates for antibodies and early stage results from clinical trials Clinical Trials are conducted to allow safety and efficacy data to be collected for health interventions . These trials can take place only after satisfactory information has been gathered on the quality of the non-clinical safety, and Health Authority/Ethics Committee approval is granted in the country where the trial is taking place have been announced by various teams. However these are early results, and have either not been developed to the point of human testing, or not fully peer reviewed and replicated by other teams, at this time.

Contents

Overview

The urgency of the search for a vaccine against HIV Human immunodeficiency virus is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or stems from the AIDS-related death toll of over 25 million people since 1981.[1] Indeed, in 2002, AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. HIV is transmitted through direct became the primary cause of mortality Death is the termination of the biological functions that define a living organism. The word refers both to a particular process and to the condition that results thereby. The nature of the latter has been for millennia a central concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical enquiry. Belief in some kind of afterlife or rebirth due to an infectious agent A pathogen, (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering, passion", and γἰγνομαι gignomai (gen-) "I give birth to") an infectious agent, or more commonly germ, is a biological agent that causes disease to its host. There are several substrates and pathways whereby pathogens can invade a host; the principal pathways have in Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With a billion people (as of 2009, see table) in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.72% of the world's human population.[2]

Alternative medical treatments to a vaccine do exist. Highly active antiretroviral therapy Antiretroviral drugs are medications for the treatment of infection by retroviruses, primarily HIV. When several such drugs, typically three or four, are taken in combination, the approach is known as highly active antiretroviral therapy, or HAART. The American National Institutes of Health and other organizations recommend offering antiretroviral (HAART) has been highly beneficial to many HIV-infected individuals since its introduction in 1996 when the protease inhibitor-based HAART initially became available. HAART allows the stabilization of the patient’s symptoms and viremia, but they do not cure the patient of HIV, nor of the symptoms of AIDS. And, importantly, HAART does nothing to prevent the spread of HIV through people with undiagnosed HIV infections. Safer sex measures have also proven insufficient to halt the spread of AIDS in the worst affected countries, despite some success in reducing infection rates.

Therefore, an HIV vaccine is generally considered as the most likely, and perhaps the only way by which the AIDS pandemic can be halted. However, after over 20 years of research, HIV-1 remains a difficult target for a vaccine.

Difficulties in developing an HIV vaccine

In 1984, after the confirmation of the etiological agent of AIDS by scientists at the U.S. National Institutes of Health and the Pasteur Institute The Pasteur Institute is a French non-profit private foundation dedicated to the study of biology, micro-organisms, diseases and vaccines. It is named after Louis Pasteur, its founder and first director, who had successfully developed the first antirabies serum in 1885. It was founded on June 4, 1887 and inaugurated on November 14, 1888, the United States Health and Human Services Secretary Margaret Heckler Margaret Mary Heckler is a Republican politician from Massachusetts who served in the United States House of Representatives for eight terms, from 1967 until 1983 and was later the Secretary of Health and Human Services and Ambassador to Ireland under President Ronald Reagan. After her defeat in 1982 no woman would be elected to Congress from declared that a vaccine Vaccines can be prophylactic , or therapeutic (e.g. vaccines against cancer are also being investigated; see cancer vaccine) would be available within two years.[citation needed]

However, the classical vaccination approaches that have been successful in the control of various viral diseases by priming the adaptive immunity The adaptive immune system is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate or prevent pathogenic challenges. Thought to have arisen in the first jawed vertebrates, the adaptive or "specific" immune system is activated by the “non-specific” and evolutionarily older innate immune system . The adaptive to recognize the viral envelope Many viruses have viral envelopes covering their protein capsids. The envelopes are typically derived from portions of the host cell membranes (phospholipids and proteins), but include some viral glycoproteins. Functionally, viral envelopes are used to help viruses enter host cells. Glycoproteins on the surface of the envelope serve to identify proteins have failed in the case of HIV-1. Some have stated that an HIV vaccine may not be possible without significant theoretical advances.[3]

There are a number of factors that cause development of an HIV vaccine to differ from the development of other classic vaccines:[4]

HIV structure

The epitopes An epitope, also known as antigenic determinant, is the part of a macromolecule that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells, or T cells. The part of an antibody that recognizes the epitope is called a paratope. Although epitopes are usually thought to be derived from nonself proteins, sequences derived from the of the viral envelope are more variable than those of many other viruses. Furthermore, the functionally important epitopes of the gp120 protein are masked by glycosylation Glycosylation is the enzymatic process that links saccharides to produce glycans, attached to proteins, lipids, or other organic molecules. This enzymatic process produces one of the fundamental biopolymers found in cells . Glycosylation is a form of co-translational and post-translational modification. Glycans serve a variety of structural and, trimerisation and receptor-induced conformational changes making it difficult to block with neutralising antibodies.

The ineffectiveness of previously developed vaccines primarily stems from two related factors.

The difficulties in stimulating a reliable antibody Antibodies are gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. They are typically made of basic structural units—each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains—to form, for example, response has led to the attempts to develop a vaccine that stimulates a response by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes.[5][6]

Another response to the challenge has been to create a single peptide that contains the least variable components of all the known HIV strains.[7]

Animal model

The typical animal model An animal model is a non-human animal that has a disease or injury that is similar to a human condition. These test conditions are often termed as animal models of disease. The use of animal models allows researchers to investigate disease states in ways which would be inaccessible in a human patient, performing procedures on the non-human animal for vaccine research is the monkey, often the macaque The macaques constitute a genus (Macaca, /məˈkäkə/) of Old World monkeys of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. Monkeys can be infected with SIV Simian immunodeficiency virus is a retrovirus that is found, in numerous strains, in primates; the specific strains infecting humans are HIV-1 and HIV-2, the viruses that cause AIDS or the chimeric SHIV Simian immunodeficiency virus is a retrovirus that is found, in numerous strains, in primates; the specific strains infecting humans are HIV-1 and HIV-2, the viruses that cause AIDS for research purposes. However, the well-proven route of trying to induce neutralizing antibodies by vaccination has stalled because of the great difficulty in stimulating antibodies that neutralise heterologous primary HIV isolates.[8] Some vaccines based on the virus envelope have protected chimpanzees or macaques from homologous virus challenge,[9] but in clinical trials, individuals who were immunised with similar constructs became infected after later exposure to HIV-1.[10]

There are some differences between SIV and HIV that may introduce challenges in the use of an animal model.[11]

As published on 27 November 2009 in Journal of Biology, there is new animal model strongly resembling that of HIV in humans. Generalized immune activation as a direct result of activated CD4+ T cell killing - performed in mice allows new ways of testing HIV behaviour.

References:

Life and death as a T lymphocyte: from immune protection to HIV pathogenesis - http://jbiol.com/content/8/10/91 .

Generalized immune activation as a direct result of activated CD4+ T cell killing - http://jbiol.com/content/8/10/93 .

Clinical trials to date

This article may need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information, and remove this template when finished. Please see the talk page for more information. (September 2009)

Several vaccine candidates are in varying phases of clinical trials Clinical Trials are conducted to allow safety and efficacy data to be collected for health interventions . These trials can take place only after satisfactory information has been gathered on the quality of the non-clinical safety, and Health Authority/Ethics Committee approval is granted in the country where the trial is taking place.

Phase I

Most initial approaches have focused on the HIV envelope protein. At least thirteen different gp120 and gp160 envelope candidates have been evaluated, in the US predominantly through the AIDS Vaccine Evaluation Group. Most research focused on gp120 rather than gp41/gp160, as the latter are generally more difficult to produce and did not initially offer any clear advantage over gp120 forms. Overall, they have been safe and immunogenic in diverse populations, have induced neutralizing antibody in nearly 100% recipients, but rarely induced CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes A cytotoxic T cell belongs to a sub-group of T lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) that are capable of inducing the death of infected somatic or tumor cells; they kill cells that are infected with viruses (or other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional. Most cytotoxic T cells express T-cell receptors (TCRs) that can recognize (CTL). Mammalian derived envelope preparations have been better inducers of neutralizing antibody than candidates produced in yeast and bacteria. Although the vaccination process involved many repeated "booster After initial immunization, a booster injection or booster dose is a re-exposure to the immunizing antigen. It is intended to increase immunity against that antigen back to protective levels after it has been shown to have decreased or after a specified period of time. For example, tetanus shot boosters are often recommended every 10 years" injections, it was very difficult to induce and maintain the high anti-gp120 antibody titers A titer is a measure of concentration. Titer testing employs serial dilution to obtain approximate quantitative information from an analytical procedure that inherently only evaluates as positive or negative. The titer corresponds to the highest dilution factor that still yields a positive reading. For example, positive readings in the first 8 necessary to have any hope of neutralizing an HIV exposure.

The availability of several recombinant canarypox vectors In epidemiology, a vector is an insect or any living carrier that transmits an infectious agent.[page needed] Vectors are vehicles by which infections are transmitted from one host to another. Most commonly known vectors consist of arthropods, domestic animals, or mammals that assist in transmitting parasitic organisms to humans or other mammals has provided interesting results that may prove to be generalizable to other viral vectors Viral vectors are a tool commonly used by molecular biologists to deliver genetic material into cells. This process can be performed inside a living organism or in cell culture (in vitro). Viruses have evolved specialized molecular mechanisms to efficiently transport their genomes inside the cells they infect. Delivery of genes by a virus is. Increasing the complexity of the canarypox vectors by inclusion of more genes/epitopes has increased the percent of volunteers that have detectable CTL to a greater extent than did increasing the dose of the viral vector. Importantly, CTLs from volunteers were able to kill peripheral blood mononuclear cells infected with primary isolates of HIV, suggesting that induced CTLs could have biological significance. In addition, cells from at least some volunteers were able to kill cells infected with HIV from other clades, though the pattern of recognition was not uniform among volunteers. Canarypox is the first candidate HIV vaccine that has induced cross-clade functional CTL responses. The first phase I trial of the candidate vaccine in Africa was launched early in 1999 with Ugandan volunteers. The study determined the extent to which Ugandan volunteers have CTL that are active against the subtypes of HIV prevalent in Uganda, A and D.

Other strategies that have progressed to phase I trials in uninfected persons include peptides, lipopeptides, DNA, an attenuated Salmonella Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped, Gram-negative, non-spore forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with diameters around 0.7 to 1.5 µm, lengths from 2 to 5 µm, and flagella which project in all directions . They are chemoorganotrophs, obtaining their energy from oxidation and reduction reactions using organic sources, and are facultative vector, lipopeptides, p24, etc. Specifically, candidate vaccines that induce one or more of the following are being sought:

Phase II

On December 13, 2004, the HIV Vaccine Trials Network (HVTN) began recruiting for the STEP study, a 3,000-participant phase II clinical trial Clinical Trials are conducted to allow safety and efficacy data to be collected for health interventions . These trials can take place only after satisfactory information has been gathered on the quality of the non-clinical safety, and Health Authority/Ethics Committee approval is granted in the country where the trial is taking place of a novel HIV vaccine, at sites in North America, South America, the Caribbean and Australia.[12] The trial was co-funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases is a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. NIAID supports basic and applied research to prevent, diagnose and treat infectious and immune-mediated illnesses, including HIV/AIDS and other (NIAID), which is a division of the National Institutes of Health The National Institutes of Health is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and health-related research. It consists of 27 separate institutes and centers which includes the Office of the Director. Francis S. Collins is the current (NIH), and the pharmaceutical company Merck & Co. Merck & Co., Inc. , also known as Merck Sharp & Dohme or MSD outside the United States and Canada, is one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. The headquarters of the company is located in Whitehouse Station, New Jersey, an unincorporated area in Readington Township. It was established in 1891 as the United States Merck developed the experimental vaccine called V520 to stimulate HIV-specific cellular immunity, which prompts the body to produce T cells that kill HIV-infected cells. In previous smaller trials, this vaccine was found to be safe, because of the lack of adverse effects on the patients. The vaccine showed induced cellular immune responses against HIV in more than half of volunteers.[1]

V520 contains a weakened adenovirus Adenoviruses are medium-sized , nonenveloped (naked) icosahedral viruses composed of a nucleocapsid and a double-stranded linear DNA genome. There are 53 described serotypes in humans, which are responsible for 5–10% of upper respiratory infections in children, and many infections in adults as well that serves as a carrier for three subtype B HIV genes (gag / pol / nef). Subtype B is the most prevalent HIV subtype in the regions of the study sites. Adenoviruses are among the main causes of upper respiratory tract ailments such as the common cold The common cold (viral upper respiratory tract infection , acute viral rhinopharyngitis, acute coryza, or cold) is a contagious, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, caused primarily by rhinoviruses and coronaviruses. Common symptoms include a sore throat, runny nose, and fever. There is no cure; however, symptoms usually. Because the vaccine contains only three HIV genes housed in a weakened adenovirus, study participants cannot become infected with HIV or get a respiratory infection from the vaccine. It was announced in September 2007 that the trial for V520 would be discontinued after it determined that the vaccination was ineffective. The foremost issue facing the rAd5 adenovirus that was used is the high prevalence of the adenovirus-specific antibodies as a result of prior exposure to the virus. Adenovirus vectors and many other viral vectors currently used in HIV vaccines, will induce a rapid memory immune response against the vector. This results in an impediment to the development of a T cell response against the inserted antigen (HIV antigens)[13] Additionally, it appears that V520 may have made some recipients more receptive to infection by HIV-1.[14][15]

The HVTN expected to finish the study in 2009, but ceased further treatment administration and declared the vaccine ineffective at preventing HIV-infection in September 2007.[16] The results of the trial have caused some to call for a reexamination of vaccine development strategies.[17]

Phase III

In February 2003, VaxGen announced that their AIDSVAX vaccine was a failure in North America North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast as there was not a statistically significant reduction of HIV infection within the study population. This same vaccine was retested in Thailand within a vaccine regimen called RV 144 beginning in 2003, with positive results. In both cases the vaccines targeted gp120 and were specific for the geographical regions. The Thai trial was the largest AIDS vaccine trial to date when it started.[18]

In October 2009, the results of the RV 144 trial were published. Initial results, released in September 2009 prior to publication of complete results, were encouraging for scientists in search of a vaccine. The study involved 16,395 participants who did not have HIV infection, 8197 of whom were given treatment consisting of two experimental vaccines targeting HIV types B and E One of the obstacles to treatment of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus is its high genetic variability. HIV can be divided into two major types, HIV type 1 and HIV type 2 (HIV-2). HIV-1 is related to viruses found in chimpanzees and gorillas living in western Africa, while HIV-2 viruses are related to viruses found in sooty mangabeys. HIV-1 viruses that are prevalent in Thailand, while 8198 were given a placebo. The participants were tested for HIV every six months for three years. After three years, the vaccine group saw HIV infection rates reduced by more than 30% compared with those in the placebo group. However, after taking into account the seven people who had HIV infections at the time of their vaccination (two in the placebo group, five in the vaccine group) the percentage dropped to 26%. [18][19]

Planned clinical trials

Novel approaches, including modified vaccinia Ankara Vaccinia viruses re-engineered to express foreign genes are robust vectors for production of recombinant proteins, the most common being a vaccine delivery system for antigens. Concerns about the safety of the vaccinia virus have been addressed by the development of vectors based on attenuated vaccinia viruses. One of them, the Modified Vaccinia (MVA), adeno-associated virus Adeno-associated virus is a small virus which infects humans and some other primate species. AAV is not currently known to cause disease and consequently the virus causes a very mild immune response. AAV can infect both dividing and non-dividing cells and may incorporate its genome into that of the host cell. These features make AAV a very, Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) replicons, and codon-optimized DNA have proven to be strong inducers of CTL in macaque models, and have provided at least partial protection in some models. Most of these approaches are in, or will soon enter, clinical studies.

Economics of vaccine development

A June 2005 study estimates that $682 million is spent on AIDS vaccine research annually.[20]

Economic issues with developing an AIDS vaccine include the need for advance purchase commitment (or advance market commitments) because after an AIDS vaccine has been developed, governments and NGOs may be able to bid the price down to marginal cost In economics and finance, marginal cost is the change in total cost that arises when the quantity produced changes by one unit. That is, it is the cost of producing one more unit of a good. Mathematically, the marginal cost function is expressed as the first derivative of the total cost (TC) function with respect to quantity (Q). Note that the.[21]

Future work

According to Gary J. Nabel of the Vaccine Research Center in Bethesda, Maryland, several hurdles must be overcome before scientific research will culminate in a definitive AIDS vaccine.[22] First, greater translation between animal models and human trials must be established. Second, new, more effective, and more easily produced vectors must be identified. Finally, and most importantly, there must arise a robust understanding of the immune response to potential vaccine candidates. Emerging technologies that enable the identification of T-cell-receptor specificities and cytokine profiles will prove invaluable in hastening this process.

A study that has had success in animal subjects is about to begin human trials in London, Ontario.[23]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) (December 2005). "AIDS epidemic update" (PDF). World Health Organization The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health Organization, which had been an agency of the. http://www.unaids.org/html/pub/publications/irc-pub06/epi_update2005_en_pdf.pdf. Retrieved 2006-01-20.
  2. ^ UNAIDS (2004) Report on the global AIDS epidemic, July 2004
  3. ^ Watkins DI (Mar 2008). "Basic HIV Vaccine Development". Top HIV Med 16 (1): 7–8. ISSN An International Standard Serial Number is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic periodical publication. The ISSN system was adopted as international standard ISO 3297 in 2007. The ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for the standard 1542-8826. PMID A PMID is a unique number assigned to each PubMed citation of life sciences and biomedical scientific journal articles. The related Pubmed Central archive may additionally assign a separate number, a PMCID (PubMed Central Identifier), normally written with a PMC prefix 18441377. http://www.iasusa.org/pub/topics/2008/issue1/7.pdf.
  4. ^ A. S. Fauci, 1996, An HIV vaccine: breaking the paradigms, Proc. Am. Assoc. Phys. 108:6.
  5. ^ Kim D, Elizaga M, Duerr A (March 2007). "HIV vaccine efficacy trials: towards the future of HIV prevention". Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 21 (1): 201–17, x. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2007.01.006. ISSN 0891-5520. PMID 17502236. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0891-5520(07)00008-6.
  6. ^ Watkins DI (March 2008). "The hope for an HIV vaccine based on induction of CD8+ T lymphocytes--a review". Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 103 (2): 119–29. doi:10.1590/S0074-02762008000200001. ISSN 0074-0276. PMID 18425263. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762008000200001&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en.
  7. ^ Létourneau S, Im EJ, Mashishi T, et al. (Oct 2007). "Design and pre-clinical evaluation of a universal HIV-1 vaccine". PLoS ONE 2 (10): e984. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000984. PMID 17912361. PMC 1991584. http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0000984.
  8. ^ Poignard P, Sabbe R, Picchio GR, et al. (April 1999). "Neutralizing antibodies have limited effects on the control of established HIV-1 infection in vivo". Immunity 10 (4): 431–8. doi:10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80043-6. ISSN 1074-7613. PMID 10229186.
  9. ^ Berman PW, Gregory TJ, Riddle L, et al. (June 1990). "Protection of chimpanzees from infection by HIV-1 after vaccination with recombinant glycoprotein gp120 but not gp160". Nature 345 (6276): 622–5. doi:10.1038/345622a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 2190095.
  10. ^ Connor RI, Korber BT, Graham BS, et al. (February 1998). "Immunological and virological analyses of persons infected by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 while participating in trials of recombinant gp120 subunit vaccines". Journal of virology 72 (2): 1552–76. ISSN 0022-538X. PMID 9445059. PMC 124637. http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9445059.
  11. ^ Morgan C, Marthas M, Miller C, et al. (August 2008). "The use of nonhuman primate models in HIV vaccine development". PLoS Med. 5 (8): e173. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050173. ISSN 1549-1277. PMID 18700814. PMC 2504486. http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050173.
  12. ^ "STEP Study Locations". http://www.stepstudies.com/new/locations.shtml. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
  13. ^ Sekaly, R. P. (2008). The failed HIV Merck vaccine study: a step back or a launching point for furture vaccine development? Journaly of Cell Biology, 205, (1), 7-12
  14. ^ Timberg, Craig (2007-10-25). "AIDS vaccine may have raised risk of infection". The Washington Post. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/health/2003973431_aids25.html. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
  15. ^ Sekaly RP (January 2008). "The failed HIV Merck vaccine study: a step back or a launching point for future vaccine development?". J. Exp. Med. 205 (1): 7–12. doi:10.1084/jem.20072681. ISSN 0022-1007. PMID 18195078. PMC 2234358. http://www.jem.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18195078.
  16. ^ "Failure of AIDS vaccine punctures soaring hopes". Seattle Times. 2007-11-08. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/health/2004001162_stepvaccine08m.html. Retrieved 2008-10-29.
  17. ^ Iaccino E, Schiavone M, Fiume G, Quinto I, Scala G (Jul 2008). "The aftermath of the Merck's HIV vaccine trial". Retrovirology 5: 56. doi:10.1186/1742-4690-5-56. PMID 18597681. PMC 2483718. http://www.retrovirology.com/content/5//56.
  18. ^ a b Harmon, Katherine (16 November 2009), "Renewed Hope", Scientific American, News Scan (Scientific American, Inc.) 302 (1): 15–16, January 2010, ISSN 0036-8733, archived from the original on 23 December 2009, http://www.webcitation.org/5mEyGfWsP, retrieved 23 December 2009
  19. ^ Rerks-Ngarm S, Pitisuttithum P, Nitayaphan S, et al. (November 2009). "Vaccination with ALVAC and AIDSVAX to Prevent HIV-1 Infection in Thailand". N. Engl. J. Med. 361 (23): 2209–2220. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0908492. PMID 19843557. Archived from the original on 23 December 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5mEyyRZ06.
  20. ^ "Tracking Funding for Preventive HIV Vaccine Research & Development: Estimates of Annual Investments and Expenditures 2000 to 2005". http://www.iavi.org/publications-resources/Pages/PublicationDetail.aspx?pubID=1251. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
  21. ^ "SSRN-Advanced Purchase Commitments for a Malaria Vaccine: Estimating Costs and Effectiveness by Ernst Berndt, Rachel Glennerster, Michael Kremer, Jean Lee, Ruth Levine, Georg Weizsacker, Heidi Williams". http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=696741. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
  22. ^ Nabel, G. J. (2001), "Challenges and opportunities for development of an AIDS vaccine", Nature 410 (6831): 1002–1007, doi:10.1038/35073500 .
  23. ^ "Human trials approval sought for AIDS vaccine". http://communications.uwo.ca/com/western_news/stories/human_trials_approval_sought_for_aids_vaccine_20090630444536/. Retrieved 2009-06-30.

External links

HIV/AIDS topics
HIV HIV · Structure and genome of HIV · Subtypes of HIV · HIV test · CDC Classification System for HIV Infection · HIV disease progression rates · HIV vaccine · RV 144 · WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease (Children) / (Teens / Adults) · Antiretroviral drug · HIV Drug Resistance Database · HIV superinfection · Super AIDS
Conditions AIDS dementia complex · Tuberculosis coinfection · HIV-associated nephropathy · HIV-associated lipodystrophy · HIV-associated pruritus
History Origin of AIDS · AIDS pandemic · AIDS Museum · AIDS timeline
Social AIDS orphan · Bugchasing · Catholic Church and AIDS · Circumcision and HIV · Criminal transmission · Economic impact · Safe sex · Sex education
Culture International AIDS Conference · International AIDS Society · World AIDS Day · Treatment Action Campaign · Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) · President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) · NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt · Southern AIDS Living Quilt · HIV and AIDS misconceptions · List of HIV-positive people · People With AIDS Self-Empowerment Movement · HIV–positive fictional characters · AIDS advocacy
Denialism Duesberg hypothesis
AIDS pandemic by region / country
Africa South Africa · Uganda · Egypt · Nigeria · Ethiopia · Rwanda · Senegal · Swaziland · Tanzania · Congo · Angola · Benin · Botswana · Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) · Ghana · Guinea · Kenya · Lesotho · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Zambia · Zimbabwe
North America United States · Canada · Mexico
Latin America Brazil · Peru · Bolivia · El Salvador · Guatemala · Guyana · Nicaragua
Asia China (PRC) · India · Bangladesh · Cambodia · Japan · Myanmar (Burma) · Thailand · Taiwan (ROC) · East Timor · Laos · Nepal · Philippines · Vietnam
Caribbean Haiti · HIV/AIDS in Honduras · Jamaica · Dominican Republic
Eastern Europe Central Asia Russia · Ukraine · United Arab Emirates · Pakistan · Iraq · Jordan
Western Europe United Kingdom
Oceania Australia · New Zealand · Papua New Guinea · Indonesia
List of countries by HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate · List of HIV/AIDS cases and deaths registered by region

: VIR

()

/ (, , , )

drugJ(,,,)
Artificial induction of immunity / Immunization: Vaccines, Vaccination, and Inoculation (J07)
Development

List of vaccine ingredients · Adjuvants · Mathematical modelling · Timeline · Trials

Classes: Inactivated vaccine · Live vector vaccine (Attenuated vaccine, Heterologous vaccine) · Toxoid · Subunit/component/Virus-like particle · Conjugate vaccine · DNA vaccination
Administration Global: GAVI Alliance · Policy · Schedule · Vaccine injury USA: ACIP · VAERS · VSD · Vaccine court
Vaccines
Bacterial

Anthrax · Brucellosis · Cholera# · Diphtheria# · Hib# · Meningococcus# (NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135, NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 - DT, MeNZB) · Pertussis# · Plague · Pneumococcal# (PPSV, PCV) · Tetanus# · Tuberculosis (BCG)# · Typhoid# (Ty21a, ViCPS) · Typhus

combination: DTwP/DTaP
Viral

Adenovirus · Tick-borne encephalitis · Japanese encephalitis# · Flu# (Pandemrix, LAIV, H1N1) · HAV# · HBV# · HPV (Gardasil, Cervarix) · Measles# · Mumps# (Mumpsvax) · Polio# (Salk, Sabin) · Rabies# · Rotavirus# · Rubella# · Smallpox (Dryvax) · Varicella (chicken pox)# · Yellow fever# combination: MMR · MMRV

research: Cytomegalovirus · Epstein-Barr · HIV · Hepatitis C
Protozoan Malaria · Trypanosomiasis
Helminthiasis Schistosomiasis · Hookworm
Other TA-CD · NicVAX · Cancer vaccines (ALVAC-CEA vaccine)
Controversy General · MMR · NCVIA · Pox party · Simpsonwood · Thiomersal
See also List of vaccine topics · Epidemiology · Eradication of infectious diseases
#WHO-EM. ‡Withdrawn from market. CLINICAL TRIALS: †Phase III. §Never to phase III

: BAC

()

///

drug(,,,, )

: VIR

()

/ (, , , )

drugJ(,,,)

Categories: HIV vaccine research | HIV/AIDS | Vaccines

 

The above information uses material from Wikipedia and is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.
Some facts may not have been fully verified for accuracy. [Disclaimers]
This page was last archived by our server on Wed May 19 02:50:15 2010. [ refresh local cache ]
Displaying this page or its contents does not use any Wikimedia Foundation's resources.
The owners of this site proudly support the Wikimedia Foundation.

[Hide]▼
'HIV Vaccine' News
Vets in MO may be at Risk for Hepatitis, HIV - Food Consumer
foodconsumer.org
Vets in MO may be at Risk for Hepatitis, HIV - Food Consumer
Wed, 30 Jun 2010 16:37:35 GMT+00:00
Food Consumer Although Hepatitis C is also a bloodborne virus that affects the liver, there is currently no vaccine for the disease. The VA Hospital in St. Louis is ...
Google News Search: HIV vaccine,
Mon Jul 26 00:21:02 2010
[Hide]▲